An analysis of the intersecting European gender ideologies with emerging ideas of race and racial difference.
In early modern Europe, a strict gender hierarchy pervaded European society, and the construct of womanhood was confined to the submission of the patriarchal system. Social norms, religious beliefs, and cultural practices shaped the expectations of women, creating a desirable ideal of a “virtuous woman.”1 This conception focused on the maternal and domestic roles of women, which cemented the gendered power dynamics into European society.
In the era of imperialism and the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the accepted European gendered ideologies merged with emerging ideas of race and racial difference, aiding in defining new racial conceptualizations. Through imperial conquests and colonialism, the gendered and racial intersection classified the African race as inferior and African women as sexually deviant, positioning Europeans as the superior race and the behavior of “virtuous”2 European women as unparalleled.
As the trans-Atlantic slave trade progressed, pieces of literature, specifically travel narratives were produced, that detailed encounters with enslaved Africans. The depictions of enslaved Africans established stereotypes to the European public that Africans were “animalistic,”34 contributing to the superior imperialistic European mindset and acting as a justification for slavery and colonization. In the descriptions of African women, the gendered expectations of European women to be “virtuous”5 did not translate to enslaved women. Instead, travel narratives established newly gendered expectations of African women as inherently sexual and devious. The opposing gender ideologies placed upon enslaved African women compared to European women provided an outlet for European men to disregard the rigid gendered expectations of Europe and engage in the sexual exploitation of enslaved African women. Literature and travel narratives in early modern Europe structured the gendered expectations of European women and the sexualization of African women.
In early modern Europe, gendered expectations shaped the lives of European women and restricted their access to public and political life. The roles of European women were dedicated to the domestic sphere as wives and mothers to their children, which was used as a justification for their overall exclusion from the patriarchal society. Women’s behavior was enforced through the creation of “conduct literature,” which was made up of various works including moral essays and advice manuals. Conduct literature also consisted of well-known texts by John Milton and Shakespeare and less popular works such as household manuals, recipe or receipt books, and religious sermons. This combined media constructed the social and cultural expectations of European women to shape the mold of a “virtuous woman,” the idealized figure of womanhood in early modern Europe. 6 A “virtuous woman” in this period could be defined as an obedient, chaste, and modest woman. The promotion of this behavior through conduct literature regulated women’s access to the public sphere and shaped the patriarchal power dynamics evident in early modern European society.7
The rigid expectations of women’s behavior did not allow for obvious forms of defiance, instead, European women found other avenues to exercise agency within the patriarchal structure. European women fostered resistance against the strict gendered expectations imposed upon themselves through forming alliances and friendships in early modern Europe. These relationships did not solely serve as personal alliances, yet created social and political networks that allowed European women to harbor agency in their restricted patriarchal culture and society. European women utilized these relationships for support in legal cases, in the pursuit of their interests, and for the advancement of their political and social consciousness. One example of women exercising agency through alliances is found in the friendship between Lady Margaret Hoby and Anne Cooke Bacon. Lady Margaret Hoby was a wealthy widow who lived in the late sixteenth century and was very interested in intellectual pursuits and literature. She formed a fond friendship with Anne Cooke Bacon, the sister of the philosopher Francis Bacon. Even though they lived across the country from one another, they corresponded daily through letters, sharing their thoughts on intellectual matters, and supporting one another through tumultuous times, like when Lady Margaret’s son was accused of murder. The friendship between Lady Margaret and Anne Cooke Bacon transcended the barriers placed upon their gender by allowing them to exercise agency by pursuing their intellectual interests and creating alliances with other women to gain support and connection. These alliances also evolved throughout time to meet the ever-changing needs of European women. 8
In early modern Europe, the patriarchal systems dominated society and regulated women’s behavior to limit them to the private and domestic sphere. These roles of women and their exclusion from public life were emphasized through “conduct literature” which sought to strictly define women’s behavior by creating the archetype of the unattainable “virtuous” women. European women fostered resistance by making alliances with one another to support each other in their endeavors in public and political life, yet the literature and media created sustained the strict patriarchal society in early modern Europe.
In the era of European imperialism, gendered ideologies began intertwining with ideas about race, which were perpetuated through literature and travel narratives. While white European women found ways to exercise some power and agency in the patriarchal society of Europe, their position depended on their status as members of the dominant racial group.9 In contrast, enslaved African women were depicted in literature with opposing gendered constructs of sexualization, which promoted the sexual exploitation of many enslaved African women. The gendered language in travel narratives equated black women as sub-human
Though European women faced challenges in the patriarchal society of early modern Europe, the prevailing narrative that characterizes white women as passive actors in the trans-Atlantic slave trade is not entirely accurate. Some white women played an integral role in the slave trade, as owners of plantations and as daughters and wives of plantation owners. The attitudes of white women toward enslaved Africans depended on various factors, including social class, religion, economic interests, and personal conceptions of race, which were sometimes shaped by literature and media. These various combinations of components created multiple complex and contradictory feelings and actions toward enslaved Africans, ranging from abusive behavior to intervention in support of their behalf.10 Both European women and enslaved African women struggled to navigate the gendered power dynamics of early modern Europe and the trans-Atlantic slave trade due to the patriarchal structure, which was enforced through the literature and media of the period.
In the European era of imperialism and the trans-Atlantic slave trade, racialized gender ideologies were constructed of enslaved African women through literature and travel narratives. Richard Ligon, an English author who purchased a sugar plantation in Barbados, depicted his travels in his book, “A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados.” In his book, Ligon details his first time seeing an enslaved woman, who was a mistress to a Padre, or Portuguese slaveowner. In his description, Ligon tries to rationalize European stereotypes of black women, creating his own distinctions between European and enslaved African women, and in the process inherently sexualizes the black mistress. Ligon writes his own gendered ideologies upon his interaction with the enslaved woman and re-enforces his perception of race, which lies in the objectification of enslaved women. 11
Ligon not only objectifies black women but also views them as a way of reproduction. One example of this is when Ligon describes the enslaved women on the island as "breeders"12 and highlights their ability to produce children as a valuable commodity. By reducing enslaved women to their reproductive capacity, Ligon reinforces the notion that they are objects to be used for the benefit of their owners. The creation of racial differences through literature and travel narratives justified colonialism and the pursuit of imperialism.13
Moreover, Ligon's portrayal of enslaved women emphasizes the racist ideologies of the time. He often depicts them as passive and docile, which reinforces the concept that they are inferior and require the control of their white masters. This depiction of enslaved women is particularly harmful, as it erases their agency and reduces them to mere objects for the benefit of white men. Richard Ligon's writing is an example of how gendered ideologies can shape interactions with enslaved women and reinforce perceptions of race. His objectification of enslaved women and portrayal of them as inferior reinforce the power dynamics of slavery and perpetuate harmful stereotypes about race and gender.
The cover page of Richard Ligon’s “A True and Exact History of the Iland of Barbados”
Conduct literature helped to enforce gendered expectations in Early Modern Europe. These gender stereotypes abetted sexist definitions of women’s behaviors and regulated them to domestic roles. A contrasting narrative surrounding noble women created a hierarchy that preferred white European women and bolstered patriarchal power dynamics. Literature and media encouraged the shaping of Europeans’ attitudes toward enslaved African women. As a result, European imperialism and the trans-Atlantic slave trade were convoluted with gendered and racial ideologies. Correspondingly, literature and media sexualized African women, which led to the exploitation of enslaved women. White women also played a role in the slave trade, however, their views on the slave trade were skewed due to their status as members of the dominant racial group. Literature and media sustained the patriarchal structure and gendered power dynamics that affected both European women and enslaved African women.
Chakravarty, Urvashi. “Slavery and White Womanhood in Early Modern England.” Renaissance Quarterly, vol. 75, no. 4, Dec. 2022, pp. 1144–79. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1017/rqx.2022.329.
Herbert, Amanda E. Female Alliances : Gender, Identity, and Friendship in Early Modern Britain. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014.
Ligon, Richard, Excerpts from Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Iland of Barbados, London, 1657: 12–13.
MacDonald, Joyce. “(Early) Modern Women and Race.” Early Modern Women 17, no. 1 (2022): 83–87.
Morgan, Jennifer L., “‘Some Could Suckle over Their Shoulder’: Male Travelers, Female Bodies, and the Gendering of Racial Ideology, 1500-1700,” William & Mary Quarterly 1 (January 1997): pp. 167-92.
Morgan, Jennifer L. Reckoning with Slavery : Gender, Kinship, and Capitalism in the Early Black Atlantic. Durham: Duke University Press, 2021.
Murphy, Jessica (Jessica C.). Virtuous Necessity : Conduct Literature and the Making of the Virtuous Woman in Early Modern England. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015.
Shaw, Jenny. “In the Name of the Mother: The Story of Susannah Mingo, a Woman of Color in the Early English Atlantic.” William & Mary Quarterly, vol. 77, no. 2, Apr. 2020, pp. 177–210. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.5309/willmaryquar.77.2.0177.