An analysis of how Mary I, despite being England's first female monarch, was able to use religion to overcome patriarchal stereotypes and exercise her authority.
Mary Queen of England by Hans Eworth (British Museum)
Mary I was the first queen of England, ruling from 1553-1558. The daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, she was initially regarded as an illegitimate ruler due to her parents' divorce. However, following the Act of Succession under Henry VIII, Mary I was reinstated in the line of heirs. There is much historical discourse about Mary I’s younger sister Elizabeth I, and less about Mary I. As the first queen, she faced much criticism and scepticism over her ability to rule, as well as her position as a woman in a male-dominated role. One way she asserted her authority as monarch was through her religion. Prior to Henry VIII and the Act of Supremacy, which declared him Head of the Church of England and established Protestantism as the official religion, Britain was a predominantly Catholic country. Mary I returned Britain to Catholicism and used it to guide her ruling and assert her power. She did this through often aggressive means, earning her the title 'Bloody Mary' for her tyrannous rule and ruthless killings of Protestants.1
Women were expected to remain in the domestic sphere in early modern Europe. It was not accepted for women to have economic or political responsibilities. They were to remain subordinate to men and not to give them orders. Due to her gender and being a woman in a previously exclusively male role, she received a lot of criticism. Much of public opinion was summarised by John Knox, a religious leader of the time, who criticised her position, stating that women were created "to be subject to man" and that her political rule amounted to an act of treason against a hierarchy ordained by God. Additionally, he stated that women have "oh fearful and terrible are thy judgments".2 Furthermore, to exemplify how women were viewed at the time, Aristotle stated that "women were essentially imperfect men, deformities of nature, and consequently monstrous".3 Therefore, this research will look into how, despite this, Mary I was still able to gain and exercise authority over a nation. She was able to make the public see that although she was a queen, that status meant "politically she is a man", and a “woman who can take on male rights”.4
Mary I primarily used religion to demonstrate her authority. Firstly, she challenged the Protestant Reformation through the restoration of Catholicism and the reversal of the Act of Supremacy implemented by her father, Henry VIII. She reinstated the Pope as the head of religion in England, restored Catholic popes to their positions, and returned land that had been given away back to the church. This took power away from the nobility that had received much wealth and land from dissolved monasteries and churches. Additionally, Mary I and the church were able to regain the power that had been given to local governments during the secularisation. More aggressively, Mary I undertook the persecution of Protestants, an action that would earn her the title 'Bloody Mary'. These persecutions were heavily influenced by her belief that the more people she killed for their Protestantism, the better her relationship would be with God, who would therefore present her with an heir. Furthermore, she believed that her inability to have a child was a result of being too lenient on Protestants, which led to her increasing persecutions. Between 1555 and 1558, over 300 people had been burned to death as a result of their religious beliefs, primarily in London, Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Suffolk. Although this led to her reputation as Queen becoming fierce and more like a King, it also led to increasing popularity of her sister, Elizabeth, as monarch.5
Finally, and most notably, Mary I used her marriage to consolidate Catholicism in the country and also to consolidate her authority. Queen Mary married the Catholic King Phillip of Spain, who was the son of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles V. The marriage aimed to solidify Catholicism as the only religion of England, while also aiding England with the Spanish military. Levin outlines that "Mary promised to marry only 'for the high benefit and commodity of the whole realm'".6 This demonstrates the lengths she went to in order to use Catholicism to deploy her power as a female monarch. Furthermore, depictions of her as a monarch in portraits, predominantly show her with a cross necklace and other religious symbols, as seen in the portrait below. She used her dress to mix religion with her authority.
Mary I, 1554 by Hans Eworth (National Portrait Gallery)
Mary I, 1597-1618 by Unknown Artist (National Portrait Gallery)
However, this marriage arguably led to a decrease in her authority and a reintroduction of male dominance, despite her Queenship. Historian Mary S. Duncan, explains that following her marriage to Phillip, his name went first despite him being Prince Consort, and not King. Additionally, he would sign documents, suggesting they were ruling jointly. Furthermore, "both their portraits would appear on the coinage, and they would sue on seal and join coats-of-arms".7 The portrait of the two on the coin also had a crown over both of their heads, once again suggesting their joint monarchy and her inability to rule as a sole Queen. Furthermore, from birth, there was pressure for all women, including Mary I, to marry in order to ensure an heir. There was also an expectation to adhere to typical gender roles to appease society. As Levin suggests, "to be successful, a woman must move away from the expectations of her gender and 'act like a man'. But to do so makes her unwomanly, possibly even monstrous." Therefore, she had to "capitalise on the expectations of her behaviour as a woman and use them to her advantage".8
Shilling of Philip and Mary, 1554
However, Mary had the "political skills to turn the handicap of her sex into an asset" and was "incapable of political manipulation". For example, she was more conventional than Elizabeth I, and was more “limited, conventional, and stubborn”.9 She asserted her political power, and removed the image of a weak woman as monarch by using Parliament as soon as she received the crown to restore her legitimacy. As Parliament had labelled her and her sister as illegitimate, she used the Act of the Queen's Title to legitimise her rule as the rightful heir to the realm. It was especially useful in asserting her authority as the first queen and reinstating Catholicism as the official religion of England by undoing the previous Protestant reforms. However, despite her efforts to legitimise her rule and reinstate Catholicism, her failure to produce and solidify a Catholic heir was one of her greatest failures. The crown passed onto her half-sister Elizabeth I, who restored the nation to Protestantism, where it has remained.
In conclusion, although Mary I was able to pass a lot of effective legislation to reinstate Catholicism in England and officially legitimise her position as queen, there was still an underlying negative view of a female monarch. John Knox's "The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women" clearly demonstrates this view, that monarchy is reserved for the dominant male, and "to promote a woman to bear rule, superiority, dominion, or empire above any realm, nation, or cities, is repugnant to nature, contumely to God... it is the subversion of good order, or all equities and justice".10 Additionally, despite her queenship and supposed sole power, she had to conform to many cultural expectations to appease society. The need and pressure for a husband, and then him assuming a similar role as a king, demonstrates the idea that women could not assert their dominance and authority on their own.
Birth of a Queen: Essays on the Quincentenary of Mary I. PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, 2018.
Duncan, S. Mary i: Gender, Power, and Ceremony in the Reign of England's First Queen. Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.
“Elizabethan Church.” Elizabethi.org. Accessed April 11, 2023. https://www.elizabethi.org/contents/elizabethanchurch/marian.html.
Knox, John. The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women. Geneva: J. Crespin, 1558.
Levin, Carole. "The Heart and Stomach of a King" Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power. Philadelphia, Pa: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.
“Mary I.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., April 12, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mary-I.